Which test-taker difference is NOT likely to result in test bias?

• A. Cognitive differences
• B. Behavioral differences
• C. All of these can result in test bias.
• D. Socioeconomic difference

Answer: (C)

Test bias occurs when performance on a test is influenced by factors unrelated to the actual construct the test is intended to measure. Cognitive differences can shape how quickly and accurately someone processes information, solves problems, or understands questions, which can skew scores even if overall ability in the target area is similar. Behavioral differences, like motivation, test anxiety, time management, or test-taking strategies, can also shift results independent of true skill. Socioeconomic differences affect access to prior preparation, familiarity with testing formats, schooling quality, and resources, all of which can influence performance beyond what the test aims to assess.

Because each of these areas has the potential to affect outcomes in ways unrelated to the construct being measured, the statement that all of these can result in test bias is the best answer. There isn’t a single factor that is inherently safe from bias, so recognizing that all listed differences can contribute helps explain why bias can arise across many test-taker groups.